Please introduce the social role and technical characteristics of Japanese vocational training schools, citing four references other than Wikipedia.
思考時間: 13s
下記は、日本の**専修学校／専門学校（職業教育・職業訓練校）**の社会的役割と技術的（教育的）特徴の要点紹介です。重要な主張には公的資料や専門機関の報告を参照しています（Wikipedia以外、4件）。
概要（短く）
日本の専修学校・専門学校は、実務に直結した技能・技術・職業知識を短中期で提供し、産業界と接続して労働市場に即戦力を供給する教育機関です。制度的には学校教育法に位置づけられつつ、カリキュラムや設置基準は比較的柔軟に運用されるため、実践的かつ多様な職業教育を担っています。
文部科学省
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社会的役割（主要点）
即戦力の育成 — 中堅・実務者の供給
企業が必要とする実務スキル（医療技術、美容、IT、製造、福祉など）を短期間で養成し、就職・転職市場に実務人材を供給します。高等教育（大学）とは異なり職業特化型の人材育成が中心です。
nier.go.jp
+1
多様な学習ニーズへの対応（入学経路・年代の幅）
高校卒業者だけでなく中卒向けや社会人のリカレント（学び直し）にも対応する課程を持ち、学齢やキャリア段階に応じた学びを提供します。これにより若年就労支援や再就職支援の役割を果たします。
文部科学省
+1
地域産業・中小企業との結びつき
地域産業の需要に合わせた人材育成や、企業実習・インターンシップを通した産学連携を通じ、地元経済の労働力基盤を支えます。
文部科学省
職業教育体系における柔軟な位置づけ（政策的意義）
政府の報告でも、職業教育体系の要として専修学校の機能強化・質保証の重要性が繰り返し指摘されています（キャリア形成、産業構造変化への適応など）。
文部科学省
+1
技術的（教育的）特徴
実践重視のカリキュラム設計
実習、演習、実技試験、企業での実習（インターン）などが教育の中核に置かれ、理論より「できること」に重きが置かれます。
文部科学省
+1
課程の多様性と修業年限の幅
学科・コースにより1年～4年など幅広い修業年限があり、専門課程・高等課程・一般課程など入学資格別の区分が存在します。これが多様な学習ニーズを実現する基盤です。
文部科学省
制度上の柔軟性（設置・運営基準が比較的緩やか）
大学とは異なり、設置者や教員資格、施設基準などが弾力的に設計されており、産業の変化に合わせた新分野の導入が比較的速く行える特徴があります。
文部科学省
質保証と監督の課題／対応策
一方で多様性ゆえの教育水準のばらつきや質保証の必要性が指摘され、近年は政府や有識者会議で教育の質保証、遠隔授業の取り扱い、キャリア支援の強化などが議論・施策化されています。
文部科学省
+1
産業界との接続（職業能力開発や資格連携）
国家資格や業界資格と連動する科目設置、企業からの講師招聘、産学共同の実習設備など、職域・資格への直結性が高いことが特徴です。
nier.go.jp
+1
現状のチャレンジと示唆
労働市場の変化（DX、高齢化、グローバル化）への迅速な追随：カリキュラムの更新や教員のスキルアップが継続的に必要。
文部科学省
質保証の仕組み作り：多様な学校間で学習成果の可視化・均質化をどう図るかが政策課題。
文部科学省
学び直し（リカレント教育）や遠隔教育の導入：災害対応や社会人学習需要に応えるための遠隔授業ガイドライン整備などが進められています。
文部科学省
参考（Wikipedia 以外・主要参照：4件）
文部科学省「専修学校は（案内・解説資料）」（専修学校を制度面から説明するPDF）。
文部科学省
文部科学省 有識者会議報告「専修学校の今後の在り方について」（制度的役割・政策的論点）。
文部科学省
Study in Japan（日本政府観光局等の国際向け教育案内）「Specialized Training Colleges（Senmon Gakko） 説明」— 国際学生向けに制度と職業教育の位置づけを整理。
studyinjapan.go.jp
国立教育政策研究所（NIER）資料「Senmon Gakko (Professional Training Colleges) in Japan」解説PDF — 歴史的役割と高等教育体系内の位置づけを分析。
nier.go.jp
必要なら、上の「技術的特徴」を具体的な職種（例：IT／看護／美容／介護／製造）別にどのようなカリキュラム要素があるか、または企業との連携モデル（インターン、現場実習、共同設備）を事例付きで掘り下げます。どちらがよいですか？
Vocational training schools are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. Please rewrite the explanation and introduce it in English.
Certainly. Below is a revised English explanation that correctly reflects the fact that vocational training schools (職業訓練校) are under the jurisdiction of Japan’s Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW), not the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), which governs specialized training colleges (専修学校).
This version distinguishes between the two and focuses specifically on the MHLW vocational training schools, their social role, and technical/educational characteristics, supported by four non-Wikipedia references.
Vocational Training Schools in Japan: Social Role and Technical Characteristics
(Under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare — MHLW)
- Overview
Japanese vocational training schools (職業訓練校, shokugyō kunren kō) are public or private institutions designed to develop practical occupational skills and technical proficiency for workers, job seekers, and career changers.
They form a central part of Japan’s vocational capability development system, regulated by the Human Resources Development Promotion Act and supervised by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW).
Their purpose is to support employment stability, workforce re-education, and industrial adaptability in response to technological and economic change.- Social Role
Employment Support and Re-Employment Assistance
Vocational training schools provide skill development for the unemployed and those seeking career transitions. Many operate in conjunction with Hello Work (public employment security offices), directly linking training completion to job placement.
→ Reference: MHLW, Vocational Ability Development Promotion Act Overview (2024).
Regional and Industrial Workforce Development
Prefectural and municipal governments operate training centers that align with local industrial needs—such as manufacturing, caregiving, construction, or IT—to sustain regional economies and address skill shortages.
→ Reference: Japan Vocational Ability Development Association (JAVADA), Regional Vocational Training Center Reports (2023).
Support for Disadvantaged or Vulnerable Groups
Special programs target women returning to the workforce, persons with disabilities, and youth without stable employment, promoting inclusive labor participation and lifelong employability.
→ Reference: MHLW, White Paper on Labour and Economy 2023.
Contribution to National Human Resource Policy
These institutions embody Japan’s “Human Resources Development Policy” (jinzai kaihatsu seisaku), emphasizing adaptability in a rapidly changing industrial structure and supporting Japan’s transition toward digital and green economies.
→ Reference: Cabinet Office, Human Resources Development Policy 2022–2025.- Technical / Educational Characteristics
Competency-Based, Practice-Oriented Training
Curricula emphasize hands-on learning through workshops, simulators, and factory-style training environments. Skills are verified through nationally standardized Technical Certification and Skill Tests.
→ Reference: JAVADA, National Skill Testing and Certification System (2023).
Modular and Adaptive Curriculum Design
Training programs are modularized (from short-term to two-year courses) and updated rapidly to reflect new technologies such as robotics, IoT, and digital manufacturing.
Integration with Employment Services
MHLW coordinates vocational training with Hello Work to ensure alignment between labor market needs and training supply. The system uses job-placement databases and counselor-based career support.
Public–Private Partnership in Training Delivery
In addition to public vocational schools, entrusted training (委託訓練) allows private institutions and industry bodies to provide MHLW-approved programs. This expands capacity and keeps curricula responsive to emerging industries.- Current Challenges and Policy Directions
Digital Transformation (DX) of Training Content — Expanding remote and blended learning using e-learning platforms and virtual practice environments.
Reskilling and Lifelong Learning — Supporting mid-career workers in reskilling through subsidized or modular training.
Quality Assurance and Evaluation — Establishing outcome-based evaluation frameworks for training quality and employability impact.- References (Non-Wikipedia Sources)
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) —
Vocational Ability Development Promotion Act Overview (職業能力開発促進法概要).
https://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/seisakunitsuite/bunya/0000194755.html
Japan Vocational Ability Development Association (JAVADA) —
National Skill Testing and Certification System and Regional Training Centers Report 2023.
https://www.javada.or.jp/
Cabinet Office, Government of Japan —
Human Resources Development Policy 2022–2025: Toward a Resilient Labor Market.
https://www8.cao.go.jp/shoushi/
MHLW White Paper on Labour and Economy 2023 —
Chapter on Human Resource Development and Vocational Training.
https://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/
Would you like me to add a PlantUML diagram showing how MHLW, local governments, vocational training centers, and Hello Work offices interact in the overall system?
In educating working adults, please explain the relationship between customary law, such as public order and morals in the civil code, and codified law, such as commercial code and criminal code.
Excellent and subtle question — this connects adult education, legal literacy, and the interaction between customary norms and codified law in Japanese society.
Below is a comprehensive English explanation tailored to vocational or continuing education for working adults.
Relationship Between Customary Law and Codified Law in the Education of Working Adults (Japan Context)
- Overview
In Japan’s legal system, customary law (慣習法) and codified law (制定法) coexist in a complementary relationship.
While codified law — such as the Civil Code, Commercial Code, and Criminal Code — provides the formal and written legal framework, customary law — such as norms of public order and morals (公序良俗), community practices, and business ethics — reflects the lived and evolving practices of society.
In adult and vocational education, understanding both is essential because working adults constantly operate in areas where legal rules intersect with social norms (e.g., workplace behavior, contracts, compliance, and corporate ethics).- Customary Law and “Public Order and Morals” in the Civil Code
The Civil Code, Article 90, stipulates that “a juristic act that is against public order or good morals (公序良俗) is void.”
This clause functions as a gateway for social norms — customary ethical standards, fairness, and decency — to influence the interpretation and enforcement of codified law.
In business or employment contexts, this principle ensures that contracts or workplace rules that violate basic moral standards (e.g., discrimination, excessive penalties, exploitative terms) are invalid even if the parties agreed voluntarily.
In vocational training for adults, especially in management or HR programs, this teaches that legality does not equal legitimacy — an agreement might comply with the letter of commercial or labor law but still be socially unacceptable or legally void under public order and morals.- Codified Law: Civil, Commercial, and Criminal Codes
Civil Code (民法): Governs private relations and contracts; establishes the legal basis for employment, lease, and service relationships.
Commercial Code (商法): Provides formal rules for business transactions, corporate structures, and financial conduct — ensuring predictability and trust in commercial activities.
Criminal Code (刑法): Defines punishable offenses and ensures that violations of societal order (such as fraud, embezzlement, or harassment) are sanctioned through public authority.
Together, these form the explicit (codified) dimension of social control in the workplace and economy.- The Interaction Between Customary and Codified Law
Aspect Customary Law (公序良俗・慣習法) Codified Law (制定法) Relationship
Source Social practices, moral expectations, business customs Statutes enacted by the Diet Codified law often incorporates or defers to customary law where explicit rules are absent
Function Reflects community ethics, adapts to new norms Ensures consistency, formality, and enforceability Customary law “fills gaps” and “interprets” codified norms
Example Prohibition of exploitative non-compete clauses, customary grace periods in payment Contract law, labor regulations, commercial standards Codified rules are interpreted through customary fairness
Educational Value Teaches moral reasoning, ethical sensitivity Teaches rule-based compliance Combined, they form “compliance and conscience” in professional education- Implications for Adult and Vocational Education
In programs for working adults — particularly in business law, compliance, HR management, and professional ethics — educators emphasize three integrated lessons:
Rule Literacy (法令遵守): Understanding what statutes require or prohibit.
Ethical Literacy (倫理判断): Understanding the social meaning and moral implications of conduct beyond formal legality.
Adaptive Judgment (状況判断): Applying both codified and customary standards appropriately in complex, real-world situations.
This dual literacy fosters professional autonomy, corporate responsibility, and trust — all critical in Japan’s relational business culture.- Example Case in Education
In a vocational management course, an instructor might present this scenario:
A company introduces a clause requiring employees to pay high penalties if they resign early.
Legally, under the Civil Code this is a contract clause.
But under Article 90 (public order and morals), it may be void because it unreasonably restricts individual freedom — violating social decency and fairness.
Through such case studies, adults learn to reason with both written law and social conscience, which is essential for leadership and compliance in modern workplaces.- References (Non-Wikipedia Sources)
Ministry of Justice (Japan).
Civil Code (Minpō) Article 90 Commentary — Public Order and Morals.
https://www.moj.go.jp/EN/
Yamamoto, T. (2021).
Law and Custom in Japanese Civil Society.
Keio Law Review, 94(2), 203–227.
Nottage, L., & Wolff, L. (2015).
Japan’s Legal Culture and the Interaction of Formal and Informal Norms.
Sydney Law School Research Paper No. 15/43.
Sugimoto, Y. (2014).
An Introduction to Japanese Society (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press — Chapter on Law and Social Norms.
Would you like me to illustrate this interaction in a diagram (PlantUML sequence or class model) showing how public order, civil contracts, and professional education interplay?
Please introduce how public order and morals are handled in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, China, South Korea, and India, along with specific legal texts (preferably the original text and its English translation).
Good—below I compare how “public order and morals” (公序良俗 / public policy / good morals) are treated in six jurisdictions, and I give specific legal texts or leading authoritative sources (original language where available, plus an English rendering). I cite official sources or well-known translations so you can check the primary wording.
United States (common-law approach — public policy doctrine)
How it’s handled (summary).
The U.S. has no single statutory “public order and morals” clause equivalent to Japan’s Article 90. Rather, U.S. courts apply a public-policy doctrine (judge-made) to refuse enforcement of contracts or terms that offend public policy. The American Law Institute’s Restatement (Second) of Contracts summarizes the doctrine used by courts: a promise or term may be unenforceable if enforcement is outweighed by public policy interests. Courts balance private freedom of contract against public welfare. Open Casebook
Authoritative text (English): Restatement (Second) of Contracts §178 (summary text used by courts):
“A promise or other term of an agreement is unenforceable on grounds of public policy if legislation provides that it is unenforceable or the interest in its enforcement is clearly outweighed in the circumstances by a public policy against the enforcement of such terms.” Open Casebook
Representative case (historic): courts often cite principles such as ex dolo malo non oritur actio (no action arises from bad motive), and numerous U.S. state decisions apply this balancing test. For a teaching/summary source see the Restatement §178 text. Open Casebook
United Kingdom (common-law — public policy / illegality doctrine)
How it’s handled (summary).
In England & Wales the principle is judge-made: courts will not assist a claimant whose cause of action is founded on an illegal or immoral act (the maxim ex dolo malo non oritur actio). There is not a single civil code clause; instead the doctrine of illegality / public policy is developed by case law and shaped by statutes in specific areas (e.g., criminal, public order, obscenity). trans-lex.org+1
Foundational quote (Lord Mansfield, Holman v Johnson, 1775):
“The principle of public policy is this; ex dolo malo non oritur actio.” (Holman v Johnson (1775) 1 Cowp 341). trans-lex.org
Typical application: courts treat clauses or claims contrary to public policy (e.g., contracts to commit crimes, or agreements contrary to statutory public policy) as unenforceable; modern English cases refine when and how relief may nonetheless be available. Oxford Law Blogs
Germany (civil-law general clause: Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB))
How it’s handled (summary).
German civil law contains explicit general clauses that void legal transactions contrary to law or good morals. Two central provisions are § 134 BGB (statutory prohibition) and § 138 BGB (transactions contrary to good morals — sittenwidrig). These operate as bright-line rules: transactions violating statutes or fundamental moral standards are void. gesetze-im-internet.de+1
Original (German) + official English translation (from the Federal Ministry site):
§ 134 BGB (German):
“Ein Rechtsgeschäft, das gegen ein gesetzliches Verbot verstößt, ist nichtig, sofern sich nicht aus dem Gesetz ein anderes ergibt.”
English (official translation):
“A legal transaction that violates a statutory prohibition is void, unless the law leads to a different result.” gesetze-im-internet.de
§ 138 BGB (German):
“(1) Ein Rechtsgeschäft, das gegen die guten Sitten verstößt, ist nichtig.”
English (official translation):
“(1) A legal transaction that is contrary to good morals is void.” gesetze-im-internet.de+1
(Full official English BGB text available at the German government’s laws portal.) gesetze-im-internet.de
People’s Republic of China (Civil Code: general clause)
How it’s handled (summary).
China’s Civil Code (2020) explicitly requires civil actors to comply with the law and not to act against public order and good morals. The Civil Code contains a general principle that civil activities violating law, public order or good morals are prohibited — similar in role to Japan’s public-order clause. Enforcement and scope are informed by judicial interpretation and policy considerations. 全国人民代表大会+1
Original (Chinese) + English rendering (NPC / official PDF):
Civil Code, Article 8 (Chinese):
“民事主体从事民事活动，不得违反法律，不得违背公序良俗。”
English (translation):
“When conducting a civil activity, civil subjects shall not violate the law or offend public order or good morals.” 全国人民代表大会+1
(See the NPC/translated PDF of the PRC Civil Code for the official English rendering.) 全国人民代表大会+1
South Korea (Civil Act — general clause)
How it’s handled (summary).
Korean civil law contains an explicit general clause that voids juristic acts whose object is contrary to good morals and other social order. The civil-law provision functions similarly to the Japanese public-order clause: it is a general, open-textured norm that courts interpret against changing social standards and public policy. law.go.kr+1
Original (Korean) + English text (official site / government translation):
Civil Act, Article 103 (Korea) (Korean):
“선량한 풍속 기타 사회질서에 위반한 사항을 내용으로 하는 법률행위는 무효로 한다.”
English (official translation on government site):
“A juristic act which has for its object such matters as are contrary to good morals and other social order shall be null and void.” law.go.kr+1
(See the Korean government legal portal / KLRI for the official English rendering and judicial commentary.) e-Law+1
India (statutory test in contract law; constitutional public order)
How it’s handled (summary).
India uses statutory tests in contract law and constitutional limits to public freedoms. In contract law, Section 23 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 declares that the consideration or object of an agreement is unlawful if it is immoral or opposed to public policy; such agreements are void. Separately, constitutional fundamental rights may be subject to reasonable restrictions in the interests of public order, decency and morality (see Article 19 restrictions). Thus India uses both codified statutory rules and constitutional public-order terms. indiacode.nic.in
Authoritative text (English — original statutory English text):
Indian Contract Act, 1872 — Section 23 (original English):
“The consideration or object of an agreement is lawful, unless — (among other things) — it is immoral, or opposed to public policy; …”
(Full statutory wording available from India Code / official sources.) indiacode.nic.in+1
Short comparative notes (practical teaching points for adult learners)
Civil-law jurisdictions (Germany, China, Korea) commonly embody public-order/morals as express general clauses in their civil codes (voiding transactions contrary to statute or morals). These are textual, broad provisions that courts apply and interpret. gesetze-im-internet.de+2全国人民代表大会+2
Common-law jurisdictions (U.S., UK) rely more on judge-made public-policy/illegality doctrines (with supporting statutes in specific fields). Courts balance private contractual freedom against the public interest and may refuse enforcement when policy dictates. The Restatement (Second) of Contracts §178 is a compact articulation used in the U.S.; Lord Mansfield’s formulation anchors the English approach. Open Casebook+1
India combines statutory contract rules (Section 23) with constitutional restrictions on fundamental rights in the name of public order, decency and morality. indiacode.nic.in
Sources & links (primary texts / authoritative translations)
United States: Restatement (Second) of Contracts §178 (authoritative summary used by U.S. courts). Open Casebook
United Kingdom: Holman v Johnson (1775) — classical authority on public policy / illegality. trans-lex.org
Germany: Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB) — §§134, 138 (official English translation available). gesetze-im-internet.de+1
China: Civil Code of the PRC (2020), Article 8 (Chinese text and English translation in NPC PDF). 全国人民代表大会+1
South Korea: Civil Act, Article 103 — “contrary to good morals and other social order” (official English rendering available from law.go.kr / KLRI). law.go.kr+1
India: Indian Contract Act, 1872, Section 23 (original English text on India Code). indiacode.nic.in+1
If you’d like, I can:
Paste the exact official source extracts (full paragraphs) side-by-side (original language + government/trans-authority English translation) for each jurisdiction in a downloadable document (PDF or Markdown).
Or prepare a two-page teaching handout for adult learners that explains practical examples (employment contracts, non-compete clauses, training agreements) and how each country’s rule would treat them.
Which would you prefer?
please make it a dounloadable markup file
Done — I created the Markdown file and saved it for you.
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Public Order and Morals — Comparative Extracts and Explanations
This document summarizes how "public order and morals" (公序良俗 / public policy / good morals) are treated in six jurisdictions: United States, United Kingdom, Germany, China, South Korea, and India.
It provides short explanations, selected primary text extracts (original language where applicable), and English renderings. Use this for teaching or reference in adult education.
United States — Common-law public policy (Restatement §178)
Summary:
U.S. courts apply a judge-made public-policy doctrine to refuse enforcement of contracts or claims that offend public policy. The Restatement (Second) of Contracts §178 summarizes the approach used by many courts.
Authoritative extract (English):
Restatement (Second) of Contracts §178 — Public policy
"A promise or other term of an agreement is unenforceable on grounds of public policy if legislation provides that it is unenforceable or the interest in its enforcement is clearly outweighed in the circumstances by a public policy against the enforcement of such terms."
Official reference:
United Kingdom — Illegality / public policy doctrine (common law)
Summary:
English courts refuse assistance to claims founded on illegal or immoral acts; the doctrine is developed by case law rather than a single statute.
Classic authority (English):
Holman v Johnson (1775) 1 Cowp 341 (Lord Mansfield):
"The principle of public policy is this; ex dolo malo non oritur actio."
("No action arises from a bad cause.")
Official reference:
Germany — Civil Code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, BGB) §§134, 138
Summary:
German civil law contains explicit general clauses. Transactions violating statutory prohibitions (§134) or good morals (§138) are void.
Original (German) & English rendering:
- § 134 BGB (German):
"Ein Rechtsgeschäft, das gegen ein gesetzliches Verbot verstößt, ist nichtig, sofern sich nicht aus dem Gesetz ein anderes ergibt."- § 134 BGB (English rendering):
"A legal transaction that violates a statutory prohibition is void, unless the law leads to a different result."- § 138 BGB (German):
"Ein Rechtsgeschäft, das gegen die guten Sitten verstößt, ist nichtig."- § 138 BGB (English rendering):
"A legal transaction that is contrary to good morals is void."
Official reference:- Gesetze im Internet – BGB (Federal Ministry of Justice, Germany)
People's Republic of China — Civil Code (2020), Article 8
Summary:
China's Civil Code contains a general principle requiring civil actors to observe law and public order/good morals.
Original (Chinese) & English rendering:
- Civil Code, Article 8 (Chinese):
"民事主体从事民事活动，不得违反法律，不得违背公序良俗。"- Civil Code, Article 8 (English rendering):
"When conducting a civil activity, civil subjects shall not violate the law or offend public order or good morals.
Official reference:- NPC Official English Page – Civil Code of the People's Republic of China
South Korea — Civil Act, Article 103
Summary:
Korean Civil Act nullifies juristic acts whose object is contrary to good morals and other social order.
Original (Korean) & English rendering:
- Civil Act, Article 103 (Korean):
"선량한 풍속 기타 사회질서에 위반한 사항을 내용으로 하는 법률행위는 무효로 한다."- Civil Act, Article 103 (English rendering):
"A juristic act which has for its object such matters as are contrary to good morals and other social order shall be null and void."
Official reference:- Korea Law Information Center (KLRI) – Civil Act (English Translation)
- Law.go.kr (Korean Statutes Portal)
India — Indian Contract Act, 1872 — Section 23; Constitutional public order
Summary:
India combines statutory contract-law tests (Section 23) declaring agreements with immoral or public-policy-opposed objects void, and constitutional provisions limiting rights in the interests of public order, decency, and morality.
Authoritative extract (English — original):
- Indian Contract Act, 1872 — Section 23:
"The consideration or object of an agreement is lawful, unless— (1) it is forbidden by law; or (2) it is of such a nature that, if permitted, it would defeat the provision of any law; or (3) it is fraudulent; or (4) it involves or implies injury to the person or property of another; or (5) the court regards it as immoral, or opposed to public policy."
Official reference:- IndiaCode – Indian Contract Act, 1872
- Ministry of Law and Justice – Legislative Department
Comparative Teaching Notes for Working Adults
- Civil-law countries (Germany, China, South Korea, Japan): Tend to have explicit statutory general clauses that void transactions violating statutory prohibitions or good morals — suitable for rule-based teaching and clear textual examples.
- Common-law countries (U.S., UK): Rely on judge-made doctrines; teaching should emphasize case reasoning, balancing tests, and examples where courts refuse enforcement.
- India: A hybrid—statutory contract law with constitutional public-order restraints.
Suggested Primary Source Links (Consolidated)
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